DNA Structure: DNA Replication RNA Synthesis Protein

DNA Structure: DNA Replication RNA Synthesis Protein DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material of a cell. It contains information about an organisms cell structure, function, development and reproduction. DNA must be able to replicate quickly and correctly so that the daughter cells have the same genetic information as the parental cell. DNA must also be capable of change. This provides variation among different generations and was the key factor for evolution to occur. DNA is a polymer (made up of many units) of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar (there is an extra hydroxyl group in the sugar for RNA), a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. There are two classes of nitrogenous bases, purines and pyrimidines. Each purine pairs up with one pyrimidine. Adenine and guanine are purines (double ring structures), while cytosine, thymine (DNA), and uracil (RNA) are pyrimidines (single ring structures). Nucleotides are linked together by a covalent bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and t he 3carbon of the sugar of another nucleotide. These 5-3 linkages are called phosphodiester bonds. These bonds are very strong and provide a good backbone for the structure of DNA. Experiments were done by Watson and Crick, and Franklin and Wilkins provided a three-dimensional model of DNA- the double helix. It is composed of 2 chains that are anti-parallel to one another (rope ladder that is twisted). Each step of the ladder is composed of one purine, ad one pyrimidine (adenineÆ’Â  thymine, guanineÆ’Â  cytosine). The central dogma of biology is DNAÆ’Â  RNAÆ’Â  protein. DNA, which contains the genes that are expressed, has to be transcribed and translated first. DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which codes for a specific protein and is assembled through ribosomes. Proteins are synthesised by amino acids. The order of nucleotides in DNA determines the amino acids used in synthesising a protein. Three nucleotides (codon) code for one amino acid; there are 64 different pos sibilities of codons. There is a total of 20 amino acids, which means that more than one codon codes for the same amino acid. There are also start codons to begin protein synthesis and stop codons to terminate protein synthesis (Russell, 9-19). Hypothesis: I predict that we will be able to understand the structure of DNA and RNA after this experiment. I predict that I will achieve a better understanding of protein synthesis after this experiment. Methods: We obtained 60 white beads (deoxyribose sugar), 60 red beads (phosphate group), 15 orange beads (adenine), 15 green beads (guanine), 15 blue beads (cytosine), 15 yellow beads (thymine), and 30 clear connectors (hydrogen bonds). We assembled 60 nucleotides by attaching a red bead (phosphate group) to the white bead (deoxyribose sugar) in a 5 position. We attached a nitrogenous base bead (orange/green/blue/yellow) to the 1 position of the deoxyribose sugar (white bead) We constructed a single-stranded polynucleotide chain by attaching the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the 3 end of another deoxyribose sugar (this strand contained 30 nucleotides- remember to add the nitrogenous bases in a random order). To form the typical double stranded DNA molecule, an antiparallel single strand must now be constructed to bond with the initial strand. The remaining 30 nucleotides were attached in the same manner as mentioned above. They were placed antiparallel to the other strand, but we made sure that the nitrogenous bases across each strand were complementary (A bonded with T, and G bonded with C). Connectors were placed between the bases to represent hydrogen bonds. We then simulated DNA replication by first forming an origin of replication. Beads were obtained and attached in a 5Æ’Â  3 direction. 2 DNAs were synthesised (each with one parental strand and one new complementary strand), which showed the semiconservative model. We then simulated RNA synthesis (transcription). We obtained 24 pink beads (ribose sugar), 24 red beads (phosphate group), 6 orange beads (adenine), 6 green beads (guanine), 6 blue beads (cytosine), and 6 purple beads (uracil). We also obtained a template DNA strand. We constructed the RNA nucleotides in a similar fashion that we made the DNA nucleotides. We followed the DNA strand and attached the RNA nucleotides accordingly (complementary to the template strand of the DNA). We then simulated protein synthesis by encoding the mRNA (translation). We positioned the RNA horizontally in a 5Æ’Â  3 fashion and uncoded the RNA. 3 nitrogenous bases make up one codon. We wrote down the different codons and using a table, figured out the amino acids required to make the protein. Lastly, we constructed the polypeptide by connecting the different amino acids. The chain kept building as the chain moved from the A site to the P site to the E site. Results: DNA Strand- 5-ATGGCTAGTATAGGTTGCCATCGATGGCAG-3 3-TACCGATCATATCCAACGGTAGCTACCGTC-5 RNA Strand- 5- AUG-GUC-UAC-CUA-ACG-CCG-GAU-UAG-3 Coding for- f-Met-Val-Tyr- Leu-Thr-Pro-Asp-termination Conclusion: DNA is very important for life. It can replicate well, which means that the next generation will retain the characteristics of the parents. It is capable of change, which means that it provides for variation and was crucial for evolution to occur. It also codes for proteins that help express genes and traits of the organism. In this lab, we simulated DNA structure, replication, RNA synthesis and protein synthesis. Each one of these processes is essential to human life and a mutation in any one of the processes could lead to death. In DNA, adenine bonds to thymine via two hydrogen bonds, while guanine bonds to cytosine via three hydrogen bonds. In all DNA, the amount of adenine should equal the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine should equal the amount of cytosine (1:1 ratio of A:T and G:C). However, the differentiation in the ratio of the adenine/thymine pair to guanine/cytosine pair varies greatly among organisms. DNA replicates semi-conservatively. This means that during replication, the strands separate, replication occurs and when the two daughter DNAs are formed, each one contains one parental strand and one new strand. Lastly, in this simulation, we did not have post-transcriptional editing where introns are excised. Each gene codes for a polypeptide which could have various function depending on the amino acids that synthesised it. This experiment was very helpful in the sense that it helped us realise how complex the processes of replication, transcription and translation are.

Game Addiction Essay

Gamer Addiction is an obsession with video game playing that usually begins in elementary and middle school. By college, the individual progresses from simple to elaborate games and the student is game-hooked. An activity becomes an addiction when it is used to change an individual’s mood. It becomes abuse when it interferes with ‘one’s work or school, or disrupts personal or family relationships, and becomes increasingly necessary to feel good’ (Orzack, 2005a, p. 1). Addiction takes away from life and reduces motivation to do anything beyond the focus of the addiction (IGDA panel). Niolosi (2002) found that video games are part of the daily routine for 65% of American girls and 85% of American boys. NBC News ( 5-19-05 ) reported that one in eight gamers develops patterns similar to other types of addiction and abuse. Tournemillie (2002) noted that a survey of 1500 teenagers indicated 25% were compulsive video gamers. Fifty per cent of those surveyed used the word ‘addiction’ to describe a friend’s gaming behaviors. Today’s video games are available in a plethora of venues that draw individuals into the world of the game. Games are designed to keep the player riveted to action. Players experience a sense of control when they enter into the fantasy world of speed, realism, violence, new morals, and interoperability. Many games offer on-line anonymous interaction with other people; a ‘hook’ is a sense of family or belonging in the form of a pseudo persona the player develops when repeatedly playing the game. The longer the game is played, the more the pseudo persona can replace reality. – See more at: http://www. nacada. ksu. edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/Gamer-Addiction. aspx#sthash. zdhglFnU. dpuf.

Free Online Microeconomics Textbook

About.coms Online Microeconomics Textbook is a set of links to resources on various Microeconomics topics. As with most online microeconomics resources this is very much a work in progress, so if there is something youd like to see covered in more depth please contact me by using the feedback form. Each Microeconomics textbook covers the core material in a different order. The order here is adapted from Parkin and Bades text Economics but it should be fairly close to those in other Microeconomics texts. Online Microeconomics Textbook CHAPTER 1:What is Economics? CHAPTER 2: Production and Trade- Production Possibility Frontier- Gains From Trade and International Trade CHAPTER 3: Economic Growth CHAPTER 4: Opportunity Cost CHAPTER 5: Demand and Supply- Demand- Supply CHAPTER 6: Elasticity- Elasticity of Demand- Elasticity of Supply CHAPTER 7: Markets- Labor Markets and Minimum Wage- Taxes- Markets for Prohibited Goods CHAPTER 8: Utility CHAPTER 9: Indifference Curves CHAPTER 10: Budget Lines CHAPTER 11: Costs, Scale, and Timing- Short Run vs. Long Run- Total, Average, and Marginal Costs- Economies of Scale CHAPTER 12: Market Structure CHAPTER 13: Perfect Competition CHAPTER 14: Monopoly CHAPTER 15: Monopolistic Competition CHAPTER 16: Oligopoly and Duopoly CHAPTER 17: Factors of Production- Demand and Supply For Factors- Labor- Capital- Land CHAPTER 18: Labor Markets CHAPTER 19: Capital and Natural Resource Markets- Capital- Interest Rates- Natural Resource Markets CHAPTER 20: Uncertainty and Information- Uncertainty- Insurance- Information- Risk CHAPTER 21: Distribution of Income and Wealth CHAPTER 22: Market Failure- Government Spending- Public Goods- Externalities- Collective Action Problems If there are other topics youd like to see covered in the Online Microeconomics Textbook please contact me by using the feedback form.

Swift Change in US Education Free Community College Program

If it is more than just a talking point, the US education system is likely to see a considerable change in the years to come – at least according to President Barack Obama. According to the White House, Obama made a proposal to make community college â€Å"free for everybody who is willing to work for it†. So far, however, it is about all that is known about this idea: in his usual manner, Obama kept from saying anything specific on the subject, for example, how much it is going to cost and where the money to finance it is going to come from. The officials from the White House and Education Department stated that the details concerning funding will be forthcoming together with the president’s budget, but nothing has been declared so far. According to Obama, this initiative is aimed at providing everybody – not just young people – with an opportunity to constantly train in order to improve the quality of their lives. The only figure to be mentioned so far is that if all states participate in the initiative, the cost of education may be decreased by, on average, $3,800 per year. Taking into account the number of students entering the educational system of the United States every year, it means that the program is going to cost billions of dollars, while at the same time devaluing the meaning of higher education. Nevertheless, the likelihood of passing this proposal seems to be tentative at the very best, considering the fact that Congress is currently led by the Republicans who are unlikely to be thrilled by a project with such an obvious socialist tinge. According to what is known about the proposal so far, it offers free access to the first two years of community colleges for students who are capable of maintaining their grades on a rather mediocre average level; yet colleges willing to get government funding from this program will have to correspond to certain academic requirements. Notwithstanding this contradiction, the American Association of Community Colleges is, unsurprisingly, already very enthusiastic about the prospect. The White House states that the inspiration for the proposal came from the last year Tennessee scholarship program utilizing lottery funding to give the state’s high school graduates two years of free access to community and technical colleges. This legislation was passed despite heavy opposition from private colleges – they believe that this initiative will inevitably divert a number of students towards state-funded community colleges, while at the same time decreasing the general quality of college graduates and education in general. The actual results of the program, however, are yet to be seen. So far it is stated that the program will not be forced upon the states: each state will have to opt in individually and provide a part of funding for the program to make sure they don’t do it just to relocate some of their own financial burden to the federal government. However, it should be noted that so far the proposal is more of an idea than an organized plan.